DNA Series: Transgenesis
Table of ContentsToggleThe DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editingTransgenic BreedingThe term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
Table of ContentsToggleThe DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editingTransgenic BreedingThe term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
Table of ContentsToggle
Table of ContentsToggle
The DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editingTransgenic BreedingThe term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
The DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editing
The DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editing
The DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editing
Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding â a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding â b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editing
Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you donât lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:
The term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
The term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
The term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
The term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
The term âtransgenicâ was created in 1980s, where âtransâ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.
Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesnât have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.
Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Letâs suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.
How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.
How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.
How transgenics are made
There are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.
There are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.
Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.
Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.
Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.
Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.
Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.
Traits of transgenic crops
1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.
There areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a âpathogen-derived resistanceâ mechanism (i.e. using the pathogenâs own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.
Another common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation âBtâ for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.
Corn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.
Modified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.
CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)
CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)
CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)
CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flower
CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flower
CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flower
Plant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protist
Modified fatty acid profile
Phytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animals
Garden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnation
Modified flower colour
Modified alpha amylase to become thermostable
Starts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucrose
Starts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feed
Enhanced production of amino acid, lysine
Increased digestibility by phytase enzyme
Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripening
Change the colour of the flower
Increased beta-carotene levels
Trigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humans
Enhanced provitamin A content
Pansy and torenia plants
Changes in the colour of the flower
Starts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-making
Julia's primrose and fungi
Increased production of omega-3 fatty acid
Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme
Delayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzyme
Upregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flower
5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)
5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)
5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)
5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.
Eucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.
Pollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.
The most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.
CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosate
CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosate
CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosate
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Bacillus licheniformis bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium
Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium
Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium
Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacterium
Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium
Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium
Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium
sulfonylurea & imidazolinone
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Arthrobacter globiformis bacterium
Streptomyces sviceus bacterium
Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium
Sphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium
2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionate
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium
Klebsiella pneumoniae bacterium
Delftia acidovorans bacterium
Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium
Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium
Bacillus licheniformis bacterium
Arthrobacter globiformis bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Pseudomonas fluorescens bacterium
isoxaflutole & related
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium
Streptomyces viridochromogense bacterium
Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium
Delftia acidovorans bacterium
Sphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Bacillus licheniformis bacterium
Pseudomonas fluorescens bacterium
isoxaflutole & related
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium
Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
Klebsiella pneumoniae bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium
ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
Although the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
Although the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.
One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.
Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.
Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.
Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.
Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.
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